Example 1 ###########################

This review suffers from a lack of contemporary, directly related research -- if indeed any exists. In general, there is very little related research concerning the actual utilization by practitioners of information disseminated in primary journals.

There are a number of user studies which are usually concerned with the information gathering habits of scientists, engineers, social scientists, and others including physicians. These studies have been reviewed and analyzed by Wook (1970) for the period 1966-1970. For more contemporary reviews of the literature, the Annual Review of Information Science and Technology contains a yearly summary and analysis of "Information Needs and Uses." In studies of engineers in R and D laboratories, Gerstberger and Allen (1968) in one of a series of cited studies, concluded that the quality of the channel (communication medium) has no bearing on the frequency with which the source is used and that both frequency and priority of use are determined by accessibility. This bears some relation to the topic of this study in that physicians have been found to use primary journals as their major source of information and education (Kotre, et al., 1971; coleman et al., 1966). Given the constraints present in many physicians' practices and described earlier, the accessibility of the primary journals no doubt contributes a great deal to their utilization.

Other user studies stress reading patterns. For example, Neufeld and Woodsworth (1972) found that specialty journals were read in some detail while general journals were skimmed. Relatedly, Kotre et al. (1971) found that 53% of medical doctors and 56% of osteopaths said they read selected articles in their entirety and about a third reported that they skimmed, scanned and read segments of articles.

Age represented the only distinguishing factor among the physicians with respect to reading style. In the Kotre et al. study, more than one-fifth of the doctors under 36 primarily skimmed and scanned and were otherwise less intensive in their reading habits. Wood and Ronayne (1973) in their survey of how chemists use scientific and technical news periodicals found that 66% of the total informants scanned the pages in sequence for any useful or interesting material. These findings are useful in perhaps indicating that the format of periodicals may yield varying levels of interest and relevance to the readers.

In a review of the literature concerning sources of drug information utilized by physicians, Herman and Rodowskas (1976) found journal articles to be a predominant source influencing the doctor to prescribe new drugs. Coleman, Menzel and Katz (1966) found that the journal has a greater or lesser significance in conjunction with interpersonal contacts, its relation to the innovation-decision phase and the order in which it is used with respect to other sources of information.

Generally, user studies and diffusion studies both utilize the questionnaire as the major tool for gathering data. Such self-reported data have some problems associated with them. First, the reliability of the information may suffer as a result of poor memory, and inability to express ideas or subconscious factors. Second, lack of interest, time or knowledge may prevent the disclosure of information. Third, a questionnaire approach may result in answers unrelated to the actual facts especially if the real answers are embarrassing. In addition, the answers might be more a reflection of wish fulfillment or fantasy than reality. Finally, answers may be given to please the interviewer. In any case, reliance on this one method only is less than reliable and represents one of the major weaknesses of retrospective studies. It is partly for this reason that the Coleman, Menzel and Katz study of the diffusion of a new drug (gammamyn) has become such a landmark in this area of research. Rather than reliance on interview and questionnaire only, they were able to corroborate responses with the additional hard data of prescription slips submitted by physicians to pharmacists. The failure of most user studies to elicit valid answers by questionnaire adds further incentive to collect data in ways that are less direct (Wood and Ronayne, 1973).

The Coleman, Katz and Menzel study also looked at professional orientation versus patient orientation. These two orientations differ according to which group the practitioner designates as a reference group -- patients or professional colleagues. Professional oriented doctors tended to adopt the innovation more quickly and in greater numbers than did patient oriented doctors. This led Coleman and his colleagues to conclude that perhaps ". . . by virtue of the particular definition of their professional role, doctors may be negatively predisposed to drug innovations per se." (Coleman et al., 1966, p. 186).

It does not appear to be a great leap to equate the professional oriented physician of Coleman et al. (1966) with the notion of a physician whose major orientation is with "disease" and its classifications which White (1973) considered a professional construct versus the physician whose orientation is to "health problems and complaints," a primarily lay construct whose manifestations constitute the bulk of the primary doctor's practice. Berkanovic et al. (1974) have further refined this dichotomy into the categories of patient care and disease control. The disease control category confines the physician's responsibilities to the application of scientific-technical criteria to the prevention, detection and treatment of disease. Under this model, the patient has the responsibility to seek care when needed and to follow orders once the care is received. The patient is expected to follow orders without question on the basis that the physician possesses scientific-technical skills essential for controlling disease and about which the patient knows nothing.

At the other end of the continuum is the patient care model where the physician has a broader range of responsibilities for helping the patient and his problems. In this model, the physician is unable to rely only on scientific-technical criteria since the problems the patient has are not solely disease oriented but instead illness oriented. Disease is what physicians are technically trained to treat. Illness, on the other hand, is a social phenomenon for which doctors receive little training in any phase of their medical education (Brown and Uhl, 1968; White, 1973; Who, 1973). As Coleman and his co-investigators suggested, these two orientations have some impact in determining the response the doctor takes to the introduction of an innovation or to his own continuing medical education either through journals or by other means.

Example 2 ############################
 

Educators for many years have felt that instruction can be improved and that student evaluations might be used to achieve this end. Yet, despite the research that has been done in this area, neither empirical evidence nor case studies indicate that instruction has been improved as a result of the use of student evaluations. Before the researcher can speculate why this is or how to change the current utility, the question of validity and reliability of student evaluation must be addressed.

Reliability and Validity

The question of the reliability of student evaluations has been studied since 1929. Remmers (1929) demonstrated the high consistency of student evaluations when he obtained a correlation coefficient of .8 among sets of 20 plus students. Later studies by Costic et al. (1971) and Gage (1974) have yielded correlation coefficients of .8 and .9. Gillmore, Kanz & Narracato (1978) obtained generalizability coefficients of .7 and greater over both students and items when a class was rated by 15 or more students responding to four or more items. A review of the literature by Costin et al. (1971) also gave credence to the argument that student evaluations are very reliable in terms of consistency and reliability over time.

The question of validity is not so clear cut. In fact, the question is overly simple. For the question begs at least two other analytic question: "What educational outcomes are related to student ratings of effectiveness?" and "What is the intended use of student ratings of teaching?" Much research exists on both of these questions.

The research of Elliott (1949) and Russell (1951) demonstrated that student ratings of instruction are related to teaching effectiveness in terms of student achievement in multi-section courses in chemistry. A more recent study by Baskamp et al. (1979) revealed that student ratings of the instructor's skill are also among the best predictors of final examination performance. This finding was consistent with the earlier findings of Centra (1977), Costin (1978), Frey (1978), Marsh et al. (1975) and Sullivan & Shames (1974). The findings of Rodin & Rodin (1972) are in conflict with the previously mentioned studies. According to the latter, students' ratings correlated negatively with student learning. Rodin & Rodin, however, can be seriously criticized on methodological grounds (Doyle, 1975; Frey, 1973; Gessner, 1973; Rippey, 1975).

In response to the question of use, there again exists an abundance of research. Overall, the data indicate that student evaluations are valid for the purposes of improvement of instruction and selection of classes by students (McKeachie, 1979; Alexander, 1978). Yet, this validity is not impervious to other factors such as student characteristics, course and class characteristics, teacher characteristics, and other environmental factors. Therefore, this study will focus on some of these other factors in an attempt to better understand how the utility of student evaluations can be increased and lead to the improvement of instruction.

Institutional Environment

A number of studies and writings have been done on the effect of certain environmental factors on the utility of student evaluations. Giordano (1978) argues that student evaluations are currently used for administrative personnel decisions rather than improvement of instruction. Accordingly, Giordano states that without rewards for effective teaching, faculty "fear that evaluation is a one edged sword which could, at best, have no effect on them; but which could also be politically used to their disadvantage" (Giordano, 1978, p. 354). Although Giordano's position on the importance of rewards is well documented in behavioral research and generally attested to in discussions with faculty, no study to date has been done on the utility of student evaluations as affected by the presence of a reward system. This void may be accounted for in the difficulty a researcher would have in implementing the study.

One of the few studies to show an increase in the utility of student evaluations resulting in improved instruction was that of Centra (1973). In this study, Centra focused on two hypotheses:

1) Student ratings would produce changes in teachers who had rated themselves more favorably than their students had rated them.

2) Additional time between evaluations along with comparative data to help the individual teacher interpret his feedback would produce more change in the teacher's instructional practices.

Results of a regression analysis generally supported the first hypothesis. Modest changes were observed regarding the second.

The results of Centra's study have been questioned by other researchers, however, since the multivariate analyses of variance tests for the three parts of comparisons did not yield significant differences. In addition, Centra's design leaves it unclear as to whether the resultant change was related to the time variable or the additional feedback teachers received or a combination of both.

Aleamoni's study in 1978 also showed some improvement of instruction based on utilization of student evaluations. In this study Aleamoni built on Centra's idea of additional feedback to instructors. He gave consultative advice to some instructors in the study. Although the results seemed to indicate a positive gain in these instructors, the study is questioned by other researchers on methodological grounds. The teachers who received consultative service were determined by the availability of the researcher's time and not randomly assigned to treatment groups. Therefore, further investigation is required to ascertain the relative importance of expert advice in conjunction with student evaluations.

Many instructors have been concerned about the validity of student evaluations particularly in required classes. Other instructors are concerned that the size of a class and subject matter are characteristics which can affect instructor ratings. While some studies have shown these variable to make a difference, the majority of studies show no effect. In a review by Kulik and McKeachie (1975), the amount of effect of these variables was found to be much smaller than perceived by instructors and generally insignificant for future studies.

Methodological Forces

One of the most recent studies on methodological variables affecting student evaluations is Feldman's (1979). This study supported the findings of Colliver (1972), Brooks and Levenson (1974) that student ratings are higher when the students sign the rating forms. Feldman's study further confirmed earlier research on the presence and absence of the instructor during evaluation and the stated purpose of the evaluation. Ratings are higher when instructors are present and also when the stated purpose is for personnel decisions -- promotion, salary increase, tenure (Aleamoni and Herner, 1973; Centra, 1976; Sharon and Bartlett, 1969; And Tentenbaum, 1977).

The question that is of most interest regarding evaluation instruments is not which one to use but what kind. The current instruments used are standardized and have been found to be valid. In addition they are easy to administer and interpret. However, the recent studies of Rotem (1978, 1979) and Hoffman (1978) raise serious concerns about their effectiveness. The question that must be addressed is whether or not instructor utility is seriously impaired by objective, standardized instruments. Derry (1979) supports Rotem and Hoffman in the contention that validity and reliability may have to "take a back seat" to utility.

Personal/Professional Characteristics

Factors related to personal/professional characteristics of instructors are not of equal value to future researchers. Characteristics such as age, sex, teaching experience and extent of publications have been studied and found to have little effect on student evaluations (McKeachie, 1979; Dow & Gage, 1967; Tuckman and Oliver, 1968; and Centra, 1973).

Some other personality characteristics may be more interesting to study in future research. For example, Hart and Durier (1978) found that teachers scoring high in extroversion, intuitiveness, and "feeling" on the Myer Briggs Type Indicator tended to receive higher ratings. Similarly, Murray (1975) found that peer ratings of instructor extroversion, lack of anxiety, leadership, and objectivity correlated positively with mean student ratings of teaching effectiveness.

Perceptual Factors

Many of the studies on student evaluations are derived from dissonance theory. Using this theory as a macro structure, researchers are able to study when an instructor changes teaching behavior based on student feedback. According to the studies of Zimbardo & Ebbesen (1970), Centra (1973), Braunstein et al. (1973), Pambookian (1974), and Hovenier (1966) instructors are more likely to change behavior when they rate themselves higher than their students rate them. However, none of the studies have identified at what point the discrepancy becomes too great for individual instructors to utilize and what other personality factors might affect this acceptance or negation of the discrepancy.

To date, no studies have been conducted on the effect of perceived vs. actual use of student evaluations. One could hypothesize that faculty utilization of student evaluations would increase if the perceived and actual use of evaluation were synonymous and for the improvement of instruction.

Relationship of this Study

As stated earlier, much has been written and studied regarding student evaluations of faculty. This study will build on the knowledge gleaned from earlier research. Since the validity and reliability of student evaluations have been firmly established, this researcher can turn to the question of utility. To date, no research study is available that answers the question: "Under which conditions will student evaluations be utilized for the improvement of instruction?" Using the knowledge gained through previous writings on variables -- environmental, methodological, personal/professional, and perceptual -- that affect student evaluations, this researcher can focus on the few that appear to have the most impact on utility.

Example 3 ###################################
 

NCA, committed to act as a vehicle for self-improvement of schools and to assist to maintain quality programs continues to grow in membership. Yet parallel to this growth and commitment are reported, in the Gallup Polls of the public's attitudes toward the public schools, declines regarding the perceived quality of the educational programs. In the Eleventh Annual Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitude Toward the Public Schools (1979) only 34% of the public (parents) gave the public schools a rating of A or B. Further, when requested to give an opinion as to what a school could do in order to receive an A (highest quality), parents responded as follows: (1) improve the quality of teachers (23%), (2) increase discipline (20%), (3) set higher standards (17%).

The Gallup Poll reflects a national view of American education and although it does not analyze primary causes for attitudinal shifts or changes, it is of immense value in pinpointing current attitudes and defining a need to involve parents wherever possible in the assessment of effectiveness.

As NCA is specifically concerned and focused on quality education and standards for the same, consideration will be given to relating appropriate conceptual items from the Gallup Poll to the research at hand.

Stevens (1976) developed and field tested a parent questionnaire. The instrument was designed according to the following guidelines: (1) to assess parent attitudes in reference to their school and its programs, (2) to provide parents an opportunity to make specific recommendations for improvement, (3) to provide valuable data for school personnel in the decision-making process relative to program development and community relations. The Parent Opinion Inventory was adopted by the National Study of School Evaluation for use in the school evaluation process. An analysis of this instrument will be made and consideration will be given to relating appropriate conceptual items where applicable to the present investigation.

Robbins (1970) conducted a study examining the attitudes of Indiana principals, superintendents and school board presidents toward the purposes and activities of the North Central Association. A major thrust of his study focused upon the effectiveness of NCA as reported by these three governance groups. Robbins concluded that : (1) Generally the NCA was seen by all school officials in Indiana as an effective, positive force for the improvement of education in the state; (2) school board presidents perceived the NCA as being less effective than did superintendents and principals; (3) the strongest support for the NCA came from the principals of NCA member schools.

Robbins' selection of governance groups was apparently appropriate since on a number of significant variables regarding NCA, the analyses of variance revealed statistically significant differences among the mean responses of the selected groups and Robbins' stated purposes revealed that the study was intended to delineate differences among the governance groups.

Robbins' study of NCA did not deal with examining the attitudes of teachers and parents. However in 1970 the issues of increased teacher and parent governance involvement had not yet become a critical educational concern.

Robbins' study is useful and relates to the present investigation in two ways: (1) the study affords a view of a methodology effective in delineating differences among governance groups, i.e., the use of a questionnaire composed of positive statements and the application of an F test of one way analyses of variance in order to determine the variance of means of the responses; (2) the selection of governance groups as variables or categories of governance reveals that such categorical organization of variables will delineate significant differences.

Burton (1974) and Ward (1975), when conducting NCA related studies, used similar categorical organizations of these same and additional variables and both were successful in gaining statistically significant differences among the mean responses of their selected groups. Although neither Burton nor Ward were measuring specifically the effectiveness of NCA, their studies were concerned with NCA activities and as such are and adjunct measure of the effectiveness of the organization.

In one aspect, the Ward study is particularly salient to this proposed research, for Ward added the variable of teacher attitudes and assessed the same relative to his study. On a number of items in his study, teachers showed a more significant difference regarding factors relative to NCA than the differences assessed between superintendent and principals. It is possible that this proposed research will also find such differences inasmuch as the variables being assessed are quite similar.

Example 4 ##############################

Of paramount importance in Ausubel's (1960, 1969) theory of learning is his distinction between meaningful and rote learning. To be meaningful the material must be relatable in a non-arbitrary fashion to some external conceptual structure, the individual must possess relevant ideas in his own cognitive structure, and he must have the intention of learning in a non-arbitrary way. Meaningful and rote learning are seen by Ausbubel as extremes on a continuum, so to the extent that one or more of the three conditions above are lacking learning will be more or less rote in character.

For more than 15 years much interest has been shown in the second of the conditions stated above. In the event that a learner does not possess these relevant ideas Ausubel (1960) suggests that an advance organizer (A.O.) be introduced into the learning sequence.

One of the difficulties with Ausubel's theory is that no clear definition of what an A.O. is has been given. Furthermore, construction of an A.O. which matches the required additions to students' cognitive structures is no simple task. Notwithstanding the difficulties of defining and constructing an A.O., many studies of its effectiveness have been reported. As West and Fensham (1976) have pointed out, most of this has not been of a kind which could test Ausubel's theory since other explanations of whatever results were obtained have always been possible. It is not surprising therefore that the overall picture to be discussed in the following section is far from clear.

Effectiveness of Advance Organizers

Novak, Ring, and Tamir (1971) presented a succinct summary of the role of the A.O. in Ausubel's theory of learning, and a post hoc analyses of 156 studies dealing with relevant parameters. Their conclusion was that most were consistent with Ausubel's theory. They correctly pointed out that this conclusion can be no more than tentative since most of these studies were not specifically designed to test the theory. That the combined research evidence is not contrary to Ausubel's position is nevertheless important.

The earliest studies of A.O.'s were reported in the sixties (Ausubel, 1960; Ausubel and Fitzgerald, 1961; Ausubel and Youssef, 1963). In each case, university undergraduates were the subjects, carefully selected on the basis of lack of prior knowledge of the learning task. Post and retention tests favored the A.O. group on each occasion. It should be noted that the A.O.'s which were approximately 500 word written passages, were first administered several days prior to the treatment. A second brief exposure to the organizer was made just prior to the learning passage. This schedule, which Kuhn and Novak (1970) have called the classic Ausubelian approach, presumably allows time for the concepts in the A.O. to be subsumed into students' cognitive structures. It has not been followed in most of the subsequent studies in which the A.O. is only given immediately prior to the learning task.

Kuhn and Novak (1970) using basically the same experimental approach with college biology students also found a significant facilitative effect for written A.O.'s. Weisberg (1970) employed different types of A.O.'s in teaching earth science concepts to eighth grade children. For these subjects, the facilitative effect was significant when a visual organizer was used, but not when a written organizer was used. However, it is not clear whether the actual nature of the written organizer was an important factor with these children. If the different types of A.O. were equivalent apart from format then these results suggest that some characteristic of the students has been overlooked.

Barron (1971) and Sowder, Musser, Flora, and Bright (1973) report no improvement in learning for students given A.O.'s. Two types of organizers were used in Barron's study which included students from grades 6 through 12. However, only 5 minutes were allowed for study of the A.O. and 30 minute prose learning task followed. Inspection of the criterion test used leads this writer to suggest that far too much material was attempted in this time. The results showed a not unexpected improvement as grade increased but, even so, on a 24 item test the means were very low (about 8 or 9) and standard deviations around 4.

The A.O.'s in the study reported by Sowder et al. (1973) were really overviews and were very short. Effect of students' prior knowledge in mathematics was ignored and the criterion tests were only 5 or 10 multiple choice items embedded in a larger test. Under these circumstances, failure to find any effect of the A.O.'s is not surprising.

Barnes and Clawson (1975), in a review of 32 studies, concluded that the efficiency of A.O.'s has not been established. Their review tends to neglect details of individual studies and concentrate on global findings. Nevertheless, it is clear that too many reports fail to give details of the A.O.'s used and in particular how they related to the students' prior cognitive structures, the structure of the learning task, and learning characteristics of the students. A.O.'s also are frequently inappropriate in length for the task described, and almost always the criterion test is inappropriate for detecting changes in cognitive structures. In the present study an attempt is made to overcome these problems, especially with respect to matching of A.O.'s to students and detecting changes in cognitive structure.

By showing that remedial teaching of relevant prior knowledge tended to remove the facilitating effect of an A.O., West and Fensham (1976) provided strong support for Ausubel's theory. Jones (1977) designed different organizers for different ability levels of students subsequently taught the same material. In each case the A.O. was associated with superior learning.

These studies suggest that future research could with profit be directed towards consideration of how A.O.'s might have prepared for specific groups of students.

Representing Students Cognitive Structures

Recent developments in techniques for detecting subject matter structure in students' memories have important implications for research into the function of A.O.'s. Rowell (1976) described an interview procedure which yielded rather gross representations which he called cognitive maps. The time involved in individual interviews makes the method unsuitable for use with large groups. Toew's (1976) free sorting of concept labels is a similar approach.

Shavelson (1974) and Preece (1976) each describe a word association approach to the determination of cognitive structure. The methods are similar and evidence of construct and criterion validity are presented. Shavelson showed that using this method changes in students' cognitive structures could be detected after one day of instruction in physics. Direction of the change was towards the structure of the subject matter.

An important test of Ausubel's theory of learning hinges on the modifying effect of A.O.'s on the students' cognitive structures. The word association technique offers a potential for detecting such change. It is also an appropriate device to use in addition to conventional tests of learning as a criterion measure since the theory suggests than an A.O. functions by facilitating subsumption of new material into cognitive structure and, hence, its use in this study.

Cognitive Style

Cognitive style has been defined in so many and varied ways that it is today investigator specific. Kogan (1971) and Coop and Siegel (1971) reviewed major conceptions and measures of cognitive style. Although some measures do not correlate well with other measures of cognitive style there is general agreement that intelligence, academic aptitude, and sex may be expected to be important variables. According to Kogan (1971, p. 291) research evidence is limited concerning the interaction between variables of instruction and cognitive styles.

Coop and Siegel (1971) see cognitive style in terms of the student's preference for dealing with environmental stimuli. They followed Siegel and Siegel (1965, 1966) in this respect. Recently Williams (1975) also viewed cognitive style as cognitive preferences, defined as the characteristic way in which persons respond to stimuli. This approach to cognitive style has been adopted in this study because it seems appropriate for classifying students into groups to receive different types of A.O.'s and tests are available for the population to be sampled.

Williams (1975) developed a Cognitive Preference Test (C.P.T.) and used it to study the cognitive preferences of 231 undergraduates in three institutions. Indications were that cognitive preferences as measured by the CPT are unrelated to sex, traditional measures of cognitive style, or aptitude. The test gives measures on three sub-scales (science, math, and social studies) and Williams studied students from a variety of fields. It was not clear whether significant differences really did exist either between field of special knowledge or content involved in the measure. Using a somewhat similar approach Tamir and Kempa (1977) found no relationship between cognitive preference and sex, and, only a weak correlation between achievement and cognitive preference.

The Educational Set Scale (Siegel and Siegel, 1966) is a widely used and reliable instrument which categorizes students as either factually set or conceptually set. These labels refer to the student's pre-disposition to learn new material in particular ways. The Siegels believe that for undergraduates educational set can be reliably assessed and that it is firmly established. They found consistently low correlations between educational set and academic ability.

It may be that the nature of scores on the ESS masks the possibility that some students, perhaps the most able, exhibit more than one cognitive style depending on the situation. In the present study, therefore, account will be taken of academic ability. Williams' (1975) results indicate that sex is not a factor in cognitive preference, but that study alone is not considered sufficient to justify its non-consideration in the present research.

Relationship of this Study

Yet another study supporting or rejecting the effectiveness of A.O.'s would add little if anything to the testing of Ausubel's theory of learning. This research attempts to test the operation of A.O.'s by identifying changes in students' cognitive structures which are predicted to occur. A classic Ausubelian approach is taken to avoid the weaknesses inherent in many other reported studies.

There are recurrent suggestions in the literature that the effectiveness of an A.O. may depend on some characteristic of particular students. Cognitive style, viewed as preferential learning set is suggested as one such student characteristic in this study. Since, unlike most other studies, achievement is measured in terms of cognitive structure as well as conventional test scores, predictions of differential learning effects for students with different cognitive styles and A.O.'s are capable of verification. If so verified, the results may be used in further validation of Ausebel's theory of learning.

Example 5 ###########################3
 

This review is divided into five sections: (1) general, (2) the adult learner, (3) the teacher of adults, (4) administration of adult education, and (5) related concerns from other professions.

General

Very little has been done in research on the question of andragogy vs. pedagogy. Ross¹ conducted a study of students in an eighth grade inner city school to determine how the students perceived themselves on the continuum between childhood and adulthood. She offers a model of andragogy as an alternative method to help the eighth grade inner city student become a more self-directed learner. Singar² zeros in on higher adult education in church-related institutions. He studied these institutions to determine programs, practices, and problems in adult higher education. He found that programs for adults in institutions of higher education are only gradually being differentiated from regular college programs. Accordingly, many adult programs differ only in time of presentation and almost insignificantly in method or approach. This study, because of its setting and conclusions, will be useful to the present investigator.

Hadley³ has developed an instrument which he has titled "The Educational Orientation Questionnaire." The purpose of the questionnaire which he designed as part of his doctoral dissertation is to provide an instrument which will determine whether the adult educator's orientation is andragogical or pedagogical. He piloted the instrument among professional adult educators across the country prior to its being administered to the study group. An adaptation of the Educational Orientation Questionnaire will be used by the present investigator to gather data.

The Adult Learner

Zahn⁴ has done considerable research in differences between adults and youth that affect their learning patterns. She suggests that those who are trying to help adults learn must be aware of these differences and structure the teaching-learning environment in accordance with such awareness. Zahn⁵ had also done research in the area of adult attitudes which affect the learning process. She speaks of these attitudes as "sets" which the adult learner brings to the learning experience.

Messer⁶ studied a group of 212 male and 188 female students at the Phoenix College campus to determine characteristics and special needs of adult students. He discovered significant differences of adult students in terms of special needs. He dealt primarily in the area of counseling needs and the matter of involvement in campus activities. This limits his study somewhat but does not negate the findings of significant differences between adult and non-adult students.

Adult personality traits are another important area for consideration. Using the California Personality Inventory and the Omnibus Psychological Inventory, Marple⁷ compared adult women students with younger students on selected personality variables. She found that there are significant personality differences between the older and younger groups. Lipschutz⁸ sought to provide a sufficient theoretical foundation for dealing with the large numbers of adults returning to American colleges. He tested three hypotheses: (1) the adult experiences a movement from concern with values and motives to concern with overt behavior; (2) whereas the younger student is concerned primarily with the acquisition of new material, the adult student is concerned primarily with the synthesis of old material; and (3) there is a movement from a concern with idealism in younger persons to a concern with realism in the adult.

The Teacher of Adults

What is the attitude of teachers towards the adult student? Plotsky⁹ examined the attitudes of college teachers towards adult students. He found that faculty desire to have older students in a particular program correlates positively with the number of years that the faculty member has been teaching.

Teacher training is another variable of concern to this investigator. Van Dyne¹⁰ discovered that there was no significant difference in teacher effectiveness as perceived by adult students between adult education instructors with and without teacher preparation training. In a somewhat related study, Berg¹¹ concluded that what a teacher knows about principles of adult teaching is not as significant a factor in student satisfaction as his ability to apply those principles. In the group researched, application of principles of adult teaching appeared to be based primarily on experience in the classroom and not on training in adult education. Thompson¹² conducted a study at the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor to determine faculty attitudes toward adult students. She found that chronological age and sex were the two most important variables in faculty attitudes towards students. Older faculty members had more favorable attitudes with regard to adult students and female faculty members typically viewed the adult student more favorably.

Administration of Adult Education

Stein¹² conducted a study among students and faculty to determine their perceptions concerning the involvement of students in decision making concerning course designs. It was shown that with one or two categorical exceptions, both students and faculty preferred assigning the responsibility for new course design on a 50-50 basis. The over 50 years of age group and older tenured faculty suggested such planning should be carried on a 75% faculty and 25% student responsibility basis.

The Cole¹³ study supports the hypothesis that adult student participation in classroom planning positively affects student achievement in the class. He was careful to observe that there was nothing to indicate that such involvement influenced retention of information.

Related Concerns--Other Professions

It is apparent that professions other than the educational profession are consciously seeking to speak to the concern of adult education. The following is only a sample of the many attempts to speak to these concerns:

FIELD AUTHOR SUBJECT
Education ¹⁴ Arlt "The Future of Graduate Education"
Physics ¹⁵ Merzacher "Rethinking Graduate Education"
Engineering ¹⁶ Soltis "PDD--Innovation in Post Bachelor Education"
Dentistry ¹⁷ Nyre & Zhonga "Graduate and Professional Education: An Incisive Look At Denistry"
Medicine ¹⁸ Richards "Mandatory Continuing Education In Medicine: A Challenge To Adult Educators"
Economics ¹⁹ Gallo, et. al. "Graduate Preparation of the Undergraduate Professor"
Social Work ²⁰ Price "Achieving A Balance Between Self-Directed and Required Learning"
Nursing ²¹ Stein "Adult Learning Principles: The Individual Curriculum and Nursing Leadership"